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AND THE INVENTION
OF THE AIRPLANE
CBPF
Henrique Lins de Barros
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AND THE INVENTION
OF THE AIRPLANE
AND THE INVENTION OF THE AIRPLANE
Henrique Lins de Barros
Ministério da Ciência e Tecnologia - MCT
Centro Brasileiro de Pesquisas Físicas - CBPF
Rio de Janeiro, 2006
PRESIDENT OF THE REPUBLIC
Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva
MINISTER OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Sergio Machado Rezende
ASSISTANT COORDINATOR OF THE RESEARCH DEPARTMENTS
Avílio Antônio Franco
DIRECTOR OF CBPF
Ricardo Magnus Osório Galvão
TEXT
Henrique Lins de Barros (CBPF)
COORDINATION
João dos Anjos (CBPF)
GRAPHIC DESIGN
Ampersand Comunicação Gráfica (www.amperdesign.com.br)
TRANSLATION
Maria Cristina Ramalho Ardoy ([email protected])
COLLABORATION
Departamento de Popularização e Difusão de C&T - SECIS/MCT
FOREWORD
For more than two centuries,
scientists, engineers, inventors,
visionaries and flying enthusiasts
were challenged by the construction
of flying machines and the ability
to control them in the air.
The unimpressive demonstrations
of the small hot air balloon carried out by the Brazilian Jesuit Bartolomeu
de Gusmão, in 1709, showed that the dream of flying could become reality.
In 1880, another Brazilian, Julio Cezar Ribeiro de Souza,
born in the State of Pará, made some achievements in the maneuvering
of balloons but it was not until October 19, 1901, when the Dirigible No. 6
of Santos-Dumont flew around the Eiffel Tower in Paris, that controlled
flight was proved. In 1906 the extraordinary impact of the airplane
invention was felt worldwide. The airplane became the main form
of transcontinental transportation drastically changing relations among
nations and impacting modern life style.
The work that Alberto Santos-Dumont accomplished
in the aeronautical field reflects his impressive creativity.
He was the inventor of the first internal combustion engine
in aerostation and the engine with opposite cylinders.
He was an innovator in the use of materials that had not yet been
applied and in the use of the wristwatch among other contributions.
Santos-Dumont’s career had two highlights: the presentation of the first
airplane, the 14-Bis, which he managed to make a complete flight before
a committee of specialists and the public and the other one was
the invention of the first ultralight airplane, the small Demoiselle.
Santos-Dumont’s innovative approach in the technological field
is a rare accomplishment. He designed, built, tested and publicly
demonstrated his models, motivating other inventors to follow his steps.
His flights with his balloons, his dirigibles and his airplanes
provided important elements to the subsequent aeronautics
development. Santos-Dumont came from a wealthy family
who gave him the opportunity to broaden his education
and his technological talent. Many of his innovative activities
were carried out in Europe because at that time the technological
conditions in Brazil were not suitable.
The Ministry of Science and Technology is involved with the
national and international celebration of the 100th anniversary
of the 14-Bis flight. This Ministry is working with various
Government agencies as well as with the scientific and technological
community in the distribution of educational materials and the release
of information related to the occasion. It is important for all Brazilians,
especially the younger generations, to get an opportunity to learn
about the life and work of this great fellow Brazilian, to discern
the impact of his inventions and to understand the scope of science and
the technological environment that made his success possible.
We ought to explore the curiosity of the mind, to boost creativity
and to promote innovation in all aspects of social life.
One of the current challenges for the Government and the Brazilian
society at large is to provide millions of young Brazilians
– an extraordinary human potential – with the opportunity to have
quality Education particularly in science. When this becomes a reality,
we will certainly have many other scientific and technological
achievements to celebrate, as the one we are doing now with great
national pride with Santos-Dumont.
Sergio Machado Rezende
Minister of Science and Technology
Childhood on the Farm. Alberto Santos-Dumont
was born on July 20, 1873, in the small farm of Cabangu,
near the city nowadays called Santos Dumont, in the state
of Minas Gerais. In 1879, the Dumonts settled
in the Ribeirão Preto region in the state
of São Paulo, where his father,
Henrique Dumont (1832-1892),
started a successful coffee farm
named Arindeúva. During his
childhood years on the farm,
Alberto acquainted himself with the
coffee production machinery, as well as with the locomotives, which
helped transporting the production of coffee beans. This innovation
was introduced by his father in the Imperial time.
The Future is in Mechanics. The young Alberto
briefly studied at the Cult to Science School, in the city of
Campinas, state of São Paulo. In 1892, he moved to
Paris, France, where he took tutoring classes.
He followed his father’s advice: “In Paris, with
the help of our cousins, you will find a specialist
in physics, chemistry, mechanics, electricity, etc.;
study these subjects, and do not forget that the
future of the world is in Mechanics. Do not concern
yourself about earning a living. I will be leaving you
with large enough estate for you to live comfortably.”
A Man of Ingenuity. Santos-Dumont never had a
regular education. He was a sportsman. As a friend said: “He
did not applied himself as a student, furthermore, he was not
inclined to theoretical studies, but showed extraordinary
mechanical and practical talent and, above all, ingenuity’.
EDUCATIONAL
BACKGROUND
Santos-Dumont
in 1901
AEROSTATION
AND FAME
The Brazil and the
Dirigibles. In 1897,
Santos-Dumont returned
to Paris and began to
focus on the problem of
aerostation, the science
that studies the basic
principles of aerostats
(balloons and dirigibles). He learned
to fly balloons and, in 1898, he built
one of his own, and named it ‘Brazil’.
He was an innovator, always searching for new
solutions, using materials not yet used to obtain
the lightest weight. The Brazil was the smallest
hydrogen balloon ever built, with a capacity of
113 cubic meters of gas, in a silk enclosure
measuring just 6 m (19.6 ft) in diameter.
Innovative Solutions. Also in 1898, he
built a new balloon, the
Amérique, as well as his first
dirigible which was not
successful. In two attempts it
crashed twice because the
machine was not rigid enough.
Despite this problem, the
machine had revolutionary
innovations and the most
important one was the use of
an internal combustion engine. In fact, it was the
first successful gasoline engine used in
aeronautics. The following year, he presented his
second dirigible – almost the same as of the first
one –, but it also crashed. That same year, after
several design changes, he finally succeeded flying
his third dirigible, which had flying innovations.
Accidents and Prize. In 1900, Santos-
Dumont was eager to win the Deutsch Prize
offered to the first person who could fly the
11 km (6.8 mi.) circuit – taking off from Saint
Cloud, in the surroundings of Paris,
circumnavigating the Eiffel Tower and returning
to the starting point in less than thirty minutes.
He made some experiments with
his Dirigible No. 4, but it was
not successful. After making some
On June 23, 1903, Santos-Dumont parked
the Number 9 in front of his apartment,
in the heart of Paris. The City of Light
stopped to see it. Soon after, he made
several public demonstrations with his
dirigible, bringing the world’s attention.
HEAVIER
THAN AIR
changes in its design, Santos-Dumont decided to face the
challenge, with a bigger balloon, the Number 5. On August 8,
1901, in one of his attempts, he was in a serious accident when
he fell on the roof of the Trocadero Hotel. Twenty two days later,
however, he built a new dirigible, the Number 6, and after
making several trial runs and going through accidents,
on October 19, 1901, he was able to fly around the Eiffel Tower.
For this feat he was awarded the Deutsch Prize, despite
questioning from some prize committee members.
One of his Facets. Generosity was one facet of
Santos-Dumont’s character. Before flying, he made a public
announcement that he was not interested in the prize of 100,000
francs and that, if he won it, he would donate half of the prize
money to his team workers, and the other half would be given to
the city of Paris, to be distributed to the unemployed city workers.
International Criteria. On October 14, 1905 the
Federation Aéronautique International (FAI) was founded
in the mold of the International Olympic Committee.
Its creation arose from the need of establishing worldwide
criteria to decide if, in fact, a heavier-than-air machine
was viable. The criteria were: a) the flight should be done
before an official organization, qualified to ratify it;
b) the flight should be done in calm weather and over a plain
ground, and properly documented; c) the machine should be
able to take off from a designated area by its own means with
a man on board; d) the machine should carry on board the
necessary source of energy; e) the machine should fly in a straight line; f) the machine should
make a change of direction (turn and circle); g) the machine should return to the starting point.
The dirigible flight test was on October
19, 1901, when Santos-Dumont flew
around the Eiffel Tower.
More than 100 Meters. FAI members knew that it would be difficult to fulfill
all the criteria in a first attempt. Therefore, the organization established a prize
for the first ratified flight that could fulfill only the criteria a) to e),
leaving for a later occasion the other two criteria. It was also established that the
flight in straight line should exceed the mark of 100 m (328 ft). FAI analyzed
previous flight reports before the organization was formed and it concluded that
of a hill, he managed to maintain himself in the air without, however, improving
his performance. He returned to work with gliders until he died in an accident.
Wind and Catapult. In 1901, the Teutonic-American Gustave Whitehead
(1874-1927) announced that he had managed to take off and to fly in his machine.
Whitehead’s feat was witnessed by almost 20 people, but no appropriate
commission was there to observe it. In 1903, the Wright American brothers,
Orville (1871-1948) and Wilbur (1867-1912) announced, by telegram, that they flew
with the Flyer, starting from a field with an inclination of about nine degrees,
and wind around 40 km/h (24.9 mph). In the following two years, they announced
that they were making turns and long flights in closed circuits, but their machine
depended on wind conditions or the use of catapult to take off. Other reports
were released, but none of them complied with all the criteria adopted by FAI.
no one had fulfilled those criteria.
Previous Reports. Many reports had already
been done about flights by airplanes.
In the 1890s, the Frenchman Clément Ader
(1841-1926) made a flight demonstration before
officers of the French Army with his Avion III.
Although the official report was confidential,
the aeronauts had information that the flight test
was unsuccessful. At the same time, the German
Otto Lilienthal (1848-1896), who had been
conducting safety glides, made an experiment
with a single-engine model. Jumping from the top
In 1907,
Santos-Dumont
inspects the
Number 15,
the airplane
that never flew.
No Real Flight. The FAI criteria were
considered difficult to comply by the members
of the Aero Club of France. Following the
tradition of that time, the Frenchman Ernest
Archdeacon (1863-1950) established a less strict
challenge. Maintaining the first five FAI criteria,
he offered a prize for who could manage
to reach the mark of 25 m (82 ft). To up the
challenge, Archdeacon and his countryman
Deutsch de la Meurthe (1846-1919) offered
a prize for who could fly 1 km (0.6 mi) in a
closed circuit. By 1905, there had been no real
flights on a heavier-than-air machine yet.
Serious Deficiencies. In Paris,
Santos-Dumont participated in the discussions
about flying and came to the conclusion that
the course of the aeronautics
pointed out to the airplane.
He, who had demonstrated
the possibility to fly a balloon,
knew that the dirigible could
not compete with the airplane. Although the world was
astonished with the demonstrations of Dirigible No. 9
in 1903, it was clear that the lighter-than-air machines
still presented serious deficiencies.
Helicopter and Single-Engine Aircraft. In the middle
of 1906, Santos-Dumont published a sketch of two of his
heavier-than-air flying machines: a helicopter and
a single-engine aircraft. In a twist of designs, in July 1906,
the 14-Bis was practically ready for the first tests.
SUDDEN
CHANGE OF
REASONING
Santos-Dumont in
his Dirigible No. 9
in 1903 (on left).
Deutsch de
La Meurthe
was an enthusiastic
supporter of the
art of flying.
He awarded prizes
for inventions.
Deutsch’s postcard
(below) has an
inscription to
Santos-Dumont
(1901).
220 Meters in the Air. On November 12, 1906, by the
end of the day, the 14-Bis ran on the grass of the Bagatelle
fields, at the Bois de Boulogne, in Paris. After few meters,
it took off. It reached the speed of 41.3 km/h (25.6 mph),
flying over 82 m (269 ft) of distance. Half an hour later,
Santos-Dumont started his forth and last test of the day.
In the air, he covered 220 m (721.7 ft) in 21 seconds,
at an average speed of 37.4 km/h (23.2 mph),
leaving the spectators astonished.
Emotion of the Spectators. The report of the Aero Club of France
Commission, the organization responsible for flight ratification, mentioned the
THE FIRST
RATIFIED
FLIGHT
emotion of the spectators: “The forth attempt
was done in a reverse direction of the previous
three attempts. It took off against the wind at
4:45 p.m. at the end of the day. The headwind
and the slight terrain inclination provided
an immediate airborne that displayed beauty
to the public and left the yet unseated
spectators in awe. To avoid the crowd, Santos-Dumont increases the speed
and reaches the altitude of more than 6 m (19.6 ft), before the speed decreases.
Has the brave experimenter hesitated for a moment? The machine seems a little
bit off-balance and makes a turn to the right. Santos-Dumont, always admirable
for his cold blood and his skills, cuts the engine and returns to the ground.
But the right wing reaches the ground before the wheels and the aircraft suffers
light damages. Luckily, Santos-Dumont is unhurt and is welcomed passionately
by the spectators who enthusiastically acclaim him as Jacques Fauré carries
triumphantly on his shoulders the hero of this glorious feat.”
A Complete Flight. For the first time in history, a heavier-than-air machine
managed to make a complete flight, taking off, flying and landing without
external assistance. After several previous trials, Santos-Dumont finally learned
how to balance and to control his aircraft in the air. This was the result
of a work of extreme accuracy, with tests and experiments carefully carried out
and always in the eyes of the public. Just after the November 12 flight,
Ferdinand Ferber (1862-1909), a captain of the French Army and one of the most
important inventors in the aeronautics field, said the following:
“Step by step, leap by leap, flight by flight, Santos-Dumont has made
great advances in conquering the space.”
The 14-Bis arrives in Bagatelle on November 12,
1906 (prior page). That day, he made the first
ratified flight (on right).
Lessen Weight. The 14-Bis was built quickly: in about two
months. The exact date Santos-Dumont started its design it is
not known. The only thing known is that the machine was
almost finished by the end of the first semester of 1906. In
fact, on July 18, 1906, Santos-Dumont joins the Aero Club of
France to participate in two competitions of heavier-than-air
machines: the Archdeacon Cup and the Aero Club of France Prize for the one who
could fly farther than 100 m (328 ft). He soon made experiments with his
prototype attached to the Dirigible No. 14, creating a heavier-than-air machine,
but with its weight lessened due to the ascensional force of the dirigible balloon.
Journal of a Brave Experimentalist. • July 18, 1906: The machine is
finished. • July 19 to 29: Tests with the airplane attached to the Dirigible No. 14 and
suspended in an inclined cable. • August 21: Tests in the polo field. • August 22, 4:00
a.m.: The 14-Bis rose from the ground. Santos-Dumont verified that the 24 hp engine
was insufficient. • September 3: A new 50 hp engine was installed. • September 4,
Bagatelle, 5:00 a.m.: The 14-Bis ran but Santos-Dumont could not control it.
• September 7, around 5:00 p.m.: It reached an altitude of about 2 m (6.5 ft). At 6:55
p.m.: The 14-Bis slid on the ground. At 7:20 p.m.: New attempt, no success.
• September 8 to 12: Changes in the design. • September 13, 7:50 a.m.: The 14-Bis ran
350 m (1148.2 ft) on the ground. Changes in the machine. • 8:40 a.m.: New attempt
and it flew a distance of approximately 7 m (22.9 ft). • October 23, 9:15 a.m.: It runs
14-BIS
FLIGHTS
Photograms
of the film
of the 14-Bis
flight on
November 12,
1906.
in Bagatelle. The 14-Bis had been
varnished in order to improve lift,
and changes were made in the nacelle
frame (pilot’s place) to reduce weight.
At 4:45 p.m.: The 14-Bis takes off and
flies 60 m (196.8 ft) at an altitude of
3 m (9.8 ft). Santos-Dumont wins the
Archdeacon Cup. • November 12:
Santos-Dumont installed an octagonal
aileron (a device to control roll). Four
trials, each one with a series of flights: I) 10:00 a.m.: It flew about 40 m (131.2 ft);
II) 10:25 a.m.: Two flights, one of 40 m (131.2 ft) and one of 60 m (196.8 ft). III) 4:09
p.m.: Two flights, one of 50 m (164 ft) and one of 82.6 m (2712 ft), in 7.2 seconds,
with an average speed of 41.3 km/h (25.6 mph); iv) 4:45 p.m.: 220 m (721.8 ft)
flown in 21 seconds, at a speed of approximately 37.4 km/h (23.2 mph).
The Last Flight. After the November 12, 1906 flights, Santos-Dumont made
some modifications in the 14-Bis. The most important one was the change of the
octagonal aileron placed in the middle of the outer cells of the wings. During the
same period, he built a new airplane, invention No. 15, drastically changing
its configuration. On April 4, 1907, at Saint Cyr, the 14-Bis flew for the last time.
It flew about 50 m (164 ft) and crashed. Santos-Dumont did not attempt to repair it.
The 14-Bis
(above) on
October 23,
1906, in
Bagatelle,
runs to take
off and win the
Archdeacon Cup
for flying 60 m
(196.8 ft)
Invention No. 19. Santos-Dumont knew that the 14-Bis
was not a functional airplane. In less than a year he
designed, built and tested five new inventions. In November
1907, he tested the first Demoiselle, his invention No. 19.
Its fuselage consisted of a single bamboo pole. Although it took
off and flew about 200 m (656.1 ft), it was clear that this
new airplane model had serious structural flaws.
Take-off and Maneuver. On January 13, 1908, the Frenchman Henri Farman
(1874-1958) was the first one to fly 1 km (0.6 mi) in a closed circuit. The two basic flight
challenges – take-off and the capacity of maneuvering – had been demonstrated: the first,
by Santos-Dumont, on November 12, 1906, and the second by Farman, on that day.
Long Distances. By the middle of 1908, a new flight challenge emerged: the ability
to fly long distances. Take-off became secondary. The Wright brothers returned to flying.
It was only at that moment that they released the pictures of their December 17,
1903 flight, the specifications of their machines, and began flying in public in France
and in the United States. In fact, the Flyer III, a machine very different from
the one they flew in 1903, made great achievements. In the end of 1908 Wilbur flew
124 km (77 mi) under the French sky.
THE
DEMOISELLE
The first
Demoiselle on
November 16,
1907.
The First Ultralight.
In 1909 another Frenchman,
Louis Blériot (1872-1936),
crosses over the English
Channel, showing the military
importance of airplanes. In
that same year, Santos-Dumont
presents his last aeronautical
invention: Demoiselle No. 20
is the first ultralight in history.
Small, weighing only 115 kg
(253.5 lb), with a wingspan
of 5.5 m (18 ft) and a length
of 5.5 m (18.2 ft), it worked
with a 24 hp engine.
World War I Ace.
In 1910 Santos-Dumont
announced his intention of
abandoning his flying
experiments. He was tired,
exhausted and debilitated.
He was probably starting to
feel the symptoms of multiple
sclerosis, a disease he had
to carry until the end of his life.
The Demoiselle was sold to
an aspiring pilot that later
on would become one of the
greatest World War I Aces:
Roland Garros (1882-1918).
Drawings of Santos-Dumont’s last Demoiselle published
in the 1910 Popular Mechanics magazine.
Aviation Enthusiast. Santos-Dumont published
the drawings of Demoiselle No. 20 and allowed it to be built
by some companies. The machine was copied and became
a popular model. After abandoning his flying experiments,
Santos-Dumont started to dedicate himself to flight
socialization, showing that flying was safe and could
change relations among nations. He attended conferences
and called the attention of all American nations
for the need of a fleet of airplanes for defending
that continent. He was concerned about the role
of the airplane in the war.
Several Contributions.
The airplane came as the
result of the contributions
from several inventors. Among
the early contributions (end of
the nineteenth century) were:
Lilienthal’s glides and early
experiments using engines; the
creation of double-winged
gliders (biplanes) with light and rigid structures.
Later contributions were the development of
gliders by many, among them Orville and
Wilbur Wright. At the same time, it was
necessary to understand what was a heavier-
than-air machine and define the criteria that
could guarantee that a given invention would
Pilots leader. From the 1920s on, Santos-Dumont is
a changed man. He worries about the flying accidents
and complains about his health. He honors fearless
aviators like the Portuguese Sacadura Cabral (1881-1924)
and Gago Coutinho (1869-1959), who were the first to fly
across the South Atlantic, in 1922. He is honored by these
pilots as the leader of them all.
Depressed and Worried. Santos-Dumont felt sick,
depressed, worried and often complained to his friends.
He was probably depressed by the advancing multiple sclerosis,
a disease that drove him to suicide on July 23, 1932, at age 59,
in a hotel room in Guarujá (SP).
LIVING THE
CONFLICT
fulfill the expectations.
The World’s First
Airplane. The world’s
first airplane – i.e., the first
airplane to perform a
complete flight, including
take-off, the flight itself, and
landing – was Santos-Dumont’s
14-Bis. His November 12,
1906 flight, performed in Bagatelle, at
4:45 p.m., when his airplane reached 220 m
(721.1 ft), was the first ratified flight
in history and is still considered
today by FAI as the first distance
record of a heavier-than-air
machine. His previous flight,
CONCLUSIONS,
INVENTIONS
AND LEGENDS
Santos-Dumont and Gago Coutinho
in the 1920s (the last on right)
which reached the speed of 41.3 km/h
(25.6 mph), is the first speed record
recognized by FAI.
A Profitable Market. By 1907
many inventors were performing their
demonstrations and in the following year,
when the airplane was already flying and
doing maneuvers in the air, there was a
change in the notion of flight. If, in the
past, the take-off through the machine’s
own means, without any external
assistance, was an essential condition
to prove that it was possible to
build an airplane, after the
advances made in those early
years what became important
was the duration of the flight
and the distance reached.
That is when the Wright
brothers came with their Flyer
III, an airplane totally different
from the 1903 first Flyer,
claiming the primacy. Now other
interests were at stake and particularly
nationalistic issues arose to create a new
version of the facts. After all, the
airplane created a profitable market.
Wristwatch. Santos-Dumont showed
great ingenuity. From a conversation he
had with the owner of one of the major
watch companies, Louis Cartier (1875-
1942), emerged the idea of making a
wristwatch to keep track of the flight time.
Not that the wristwatch did not exist before,
but Cartier Santos, a sophisticated model, worn
by a personality such as Santos-Dumont, arose
the interest of a society eager for new things.
Alternate Steps. A Encantada
(‘The Enchanted’), his little house in Petrópolis,
Brazil, built in 1918, is another example of his
creativity. In the entrance there is a very steep
staircase, although very comfortable to climb.
Santos-Dumont built it with alternate steps,
making the climb easier. The first step forces
the visitor to use the right foot. Was it done
on purpose? From a naïve point of view, it seems
impossible for anyone to live there. But the house
was his place of rest and retreat, a reserved space.
Across Rua do Encanto there still exists the house
where his servants stayed.
Stories and Legends. There are stories and
legends about Santos-Dumont, and facts not
much talked about, as his personal
relationships with the Americans
Lurline Spreckels (in 1903), and
Edna Powers (the following year),
who appears as his fiancée,
as well as with
the Brazilian Yolanda
Penteado in the 1920s.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Sources (in alphabetical order):
BARROS, H. L. de.
Santos Dumont
(Jorge Zahar Editor, Rio de Janeiro, 2003)
JORGE, F.
As lutas, as glórias e o martírio de Santos Dumont
(McGraw Hill do Brasil, São Paulo, 1977)
SANTOS DUMONT,
Os meus balões
(The Army Library, Rio de Janeiro, 1973)
SANTOS DUMONT, A.
O que eu vi e o que nós veremos
(Author’s Edition, Rio de Janeiro, 1918)
VILLARES, H. Dumont.
Quem deu asas ao homem
(MEC, Rio de Janeiro, 1957)
MAGAZINES
L´Aerophile
, 1900-1910
Líllustration
, 1890-1919
La Nature
, 1870-1920
PERMANENT COLLECTIONS
Museu Aeroespacial do Campo dos Afonsos (Musal, Rio de Janeiro, RJ)
Museu Casa de Cabangu (MG)
Museu Paulista, da Universidade de São Paulo (Museu do Ipiranga, São Paulo)
Brigadeiro Lavenere-Wanderley/Sophia Helena Dodsworth Wanderley
Museu Casa de Santos Dumont - “A Encantada” (Petrópolis, RJ)
CENTRO BRASILEIRO DE PESQUISAS FÍSICAS
(BRAZILIAN CENTER OF RESEARCH IN PHYSICS)
Rua Dr. Xavier Sigaud, 150 | 22290-180 | Rio de Janeiro | RJ
Tel (0xx21) 2141-7100 | Fax (0xx21) 2141-7400
Internet: http://www.cbpf.br
It is also available on PDF at http://www.cbpf.br/Publicacoes.html
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