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posture, body movements and gestures, among other facets. Individual kinesic behaviors
that have been demonstrated to be associated with dominance include posture, elevation,
relaxation (Burgoon & Hoobler, 2002; Cashdan, 1998; Schwartz et al., 1982), body lean,
gesturing,
smiling, eye gaze (Burgoon, Buller, Hale, & deTurck, 1984; Kimble &
Musgrove, 1988; Lamb, 1981), and a higher visual dominance ratio (a higher looking-
while-speaking to looking-while-listening ratio (Dovidio & Ellyson, 1982, 1985; Ellyson,
Dovidio, Corson, & Vinicur, 1980; Exline, Ellyson, & Long, 1975). A unique study in
which nonverbal behavior was manipulated as an independent variable also confirmed that
relaxation and eye gaze are dominant behaviors in that relaxed facial expressions increased
ratings on all of French and Raven’s (1959) power bases – reward, legitimate, expert,
referent, and credibility – and more direct eye contact increased ratings of credibility
(Aguinis, Simonsen, & Pierce, 1998). Cues associated with the voice have also been found
to have a connection to dominance. Lamb (1981) concluded that individuals high in vocal
control actually exert more control over resources and outcomes. Other research has found
that vocal features such as the amount of talking time, speech loudness, speech tempo, and
pitch play a role in perceptions of dominance, credibility, and leadership ability (Burgoon
& Hoobler, 2002; Cashdan, 1998; Gregory & Webster, 1996; Kimble & Musgrove, 1988;
Lamb, 1981). Those who initiate and succeed with control attempts will be perceived as
dominant by their partners and by third-party observers. To the extent that control attempts
rely upon or incorporate noticeable nonverbal behavior, dominant individuals should be
perceived as using a
dominant style of nonverbal communication. Thus, the prototypical
nonverbally dominant communicator would be kinesically and vocally dynamic (using
more gestures, greater eye gaze, more vocal animation and
greater amounts of talk) while
giving the impression of relaxation and confidence.
At the verbal level, there are a variety of influence strategies individuals can use to
try to alter the behavior of their partner in relationships, ranging from problem-solving and
compromise to unilateral accommodation and
the use of insults, threats, and physical force
(Fitzpatrick & Winke, 1979; Klein & Johnson, 1997). Canary and Spitzberg (1987)
distinguished among three types of strategies: integrative strategies that are cooperative in
nature, distributive tactics that are competitive and antagonistic, and avoidance strategies
that seek to diffuse discussion of the conflict. Sillars et al.
(1982) identified nonverbal